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{{About|the fragmentation of the [[Mongol Empire]]|administrative divisions of the earlier Mongol Empire and its khanates|Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire}}

{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Division of the Mongol Empire |AKA =
|Image_Name = MongolEmpireDivisions1300.png
|Imagesize =
|Image_Alt = Relict states of the [[Mongol Empire]]
|Image_Caption =Fragmentation of the [[Mongol Empire]]
|Participants = [[Ilkhanate]], [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Chagatai Khanate]], [[Golden Horde]]
|Location = [[Mongol Empire]]
|Date =1259 - 1294 AD
|Result = The Mongol Empire fractured into four separate khanates
|URL =
}}
{{Division of the Mongol Empire}}
The '''division of the Mongol Empire''' began when [[Möngke Khan]] died in 1259 with no declared successor, precipitating infighting between members of the [[Tolui]] family line for the title of [[Khagan|Great Khan]] that escalated to the [[Toluid Civil War]]. This civil war, along with the [[Berke–Hulagu war]] and the subsequent [[Kaidu–Kublai war]] greatly weakened the authority of the Great Khan over the entirety of the [[Mongol Empire]] and the empire fractured into autonomous khanates, including the [[Golden Horde]] in the northwest, the [[Chagatai Khanate]] in the middle, the [[Ilkhanate]] in the southwest, and the [[Yuan dynasty]] in the east based in modern-day [[Beijing]], although the Yuan emperors held the nominal title of [[Khagan]] of the empire. The four khanates each pursued their own separate interests and objectives, and fell at different times.

==Disunity==



===Dispute over succession===

[[File:DiezAlbumsArmedRiders II.jpg|thumb|The Mongols at war.]]
[[Möngke Khan]]'s brother [[Hulagu Khan]] broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to [[Mughan]] and leaving only a small contingent under his general [[Kitbuqa]]. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other.<ref name="Morgan. The Mongols. p. 138">Morgan. ''The Mongols''. p. 138.</ref>

In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], and engaged [[Kitbuqa]]'s forces just north of Galilee, at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa was executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion, as the Mongols were never again able to make any serious military advances farther than Syria.<ref name="Morgan. The Mongols. p. 138"/>

In a separate part of the empire, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, [[Kublai Khan]], heard of the Great Khan's death at the Huai River in China. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into the [[Wuchang District|Wuchang]] area of China, near the [[Yangtze River]]. Their younger brother [[Ariq Böke|Ariqboke]] took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of Great Khan for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the ''kurultai'' in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own ''kurultai'' at [[Kaiping]], where virtually all the senior princes and great noyans resident in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.

===Civil war===
{{see also|Toluid Civil War|Berke–Hulagu war}}
[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[Kublai Khan]], [[Genghis Khan]]'s grandson and founder of the Yuan dynasty.]]

Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother [[Ariq Böke|Ariqboke]], which included forces still loyal to Möngke's previous administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariqboke's supporters and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took place from their cousins, the Chagataids.<ref name="Wassaf p. 12">Wassaf. p. 12.{{full|date=November 2012}}</ref><ref name="Jackson. p. 109">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 109.</ref><ref name="Barthold. Turkestan. p. 488">Barthold. ''Turkestan''. p. 488.</ref> Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man [[Alghu]] crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in 1261.<ref name="Wassaf p. 12"/><ref name="Jackson. p. 109"/><ref name="Barthold. Turkestan. p. 488"/>

In the southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, the ruler of the [[Golden Horde]] in the northwestern part of the empire, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal distribution of war booty, and Hulagu's massacres of the Muslims increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260.<ref>L. N.Gumilev, A. Kruchki. ''Black legend''</ref>{{full|date=November 2012}} Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.<ref name=barthold>Barthold. ''Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion''. p. 446.</ref>

Hulagu died on February 8, 1264. Berke sought to take advantage and invade Hulagu's realm, but he died along the way, and a few months later Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]] as a new Ilkhan, and Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a [[Franco-Mongol alliance]] with the Europeans against the Egyptian Mamluks. Kublai nominated Batu's grandson [[Möngke Temür]] to lead the Golden Horde.<ref>Prawdin. ''Mongol Empire and Its Legacy''. p. 302.</ref> Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at [[Shangdu]] on August 21, 1264.<ref>Weatherford. p. 120.</ref>

===Disintegration into four khanates===
The establishment of the [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368) by [[Kublai Khan]] accelerated the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire fractured into four khanates including the Yuan dynasty, the [[Golden Horde]], the [[Chagatai Khanate]] and the [[Ilkhanate]]. In 1304, a peace treaty among the khanates established the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty over the western khanates. However, this supremacy was based on nothing like the same foundations as that of the earlier Khagans. Conflicts such as border clashes among them continued. An example would be the [[Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war]] occurred in the 1310s. Each of the four khanates continued to function as separate states and fell at different times.

==== Yuan dynasty ====
{{Main|Yuan dynasty}}
[[File:Belt plaque with dragon design.jpg|thumb|left|A Yuan dynasty [[jade]] belt plaque featuring carved designs of a [[Chinese dragon|dragon]].]]
The transition of the capital of the Mongol Empire to [[Khanbaliq]] (Dadu, modern-day [[Beijing]]) by Kublai Khan in 1264 was opposed by many Mongols. Thus, Ariq Böke's struggle was for keeping the center of the Empire in Mongolia homeland. After Ariq Böke's death, the struggle was continued by [[Kaidu]], a grandson of Ogedei Khan and lord [[Nayan (Mongol Prince)|Nayan]].

By eliminating the [[Song dynasty]], Kublai Khan completed the conquest of China. The fleets of the Yuan dynasty [[Mongol invasion of Japan|attempted to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281]], but their ships were destroyed in [[Kamikaze (typhoon)|sea storms named kamikazes]] (divine wind) on both occasions. The ordinary people experienced hardships during the Yuan dynasty. Hence, Mongol warriors rebelled against Kublai in 1289. Kublai Khan died in 1294 and was succeeded by [[Temür Khan]], who continued the [[Kaidu-Kublai war|fight against Kaidu]], which lasted until Kaidu's death in 1301. [[Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan]] came to power in 1312. The [[Imperial examination|civil service examination system]] was instituted for the Yuan dynasty in 1313.<ref>The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, by Reuven Amitai, David Orrin Morgan, p267</ref>

A rebellion called the [[Red Turban Rebellion]] began in China in the 1350s<ref>''The Cambridge history of China'', Volume 7, pg 42</ref> and the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1368. The last Yuan emperor [[Toghon Temür]] fled north to [[Yingchang]] and died there in 1370. The Yuan remnants, which had retreated to Mongolia homeland, is known as the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]] and continued to resist the Ming China.

==== Golden Horde ====
{{Main|Golden Horde}}
[[File:Цар Батий на престолі.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Batu Khan]] establishes the Golden Horde.]]
The [[Golden Horde]] was founded by [[Batu Khan|Batu]], son of Jochi, in 1243. The Golden Horde included the Volga region, mountains of [[Ural Mountains|Ural]], the steppes of the northern Black Sea, [[Fore-Caucasus]], Western [[Siberia]], [[Aral Sea]] and [[Irtysh]] bassin, and held principalities of Rus in tributary relations.

The capital was initially [[Sarai (city)|Sarai Batu]] and later [[Sarai (city)|Sarai Berke]]. This extensive empire weakened under rivalry of the descendants of Batu and split into [[Khanate of Kazan]], [[Astrakhan Khanate]], [[Crimean Khanate]], [[Siberia Khanate]], [[Great Horde]], [[Nogai Horde]] and [[White Horde]] during the [[15th century]]. A unified Rus conquered Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Astrakhan Khanate in 1556, Siberia Khanate in 1582, and the [[Russian Empire]] conquered Crimean Khanate in 1783.

==== Chagatai Khanate ====
{{Main|Chagatai Khanate}}
The [[Chagatai Khanate]] separated in 1266 and covered Central Asia, [[Lake Balkhash]], [[Kashgaria]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Zhetysu]]. It was split between settled [[Transoxania]] (Ma Wara'un-Nahr) in the west and nomadic [[Moghulistan]] in the east. It is claimed that parts of them still spoke Mongolian until the late 16th century.

[[File:Samarkand observatoire ulugh beg.jpg|thumb|left||[[Ulugh Beg Observatory]] in [[Samarkand]]]]
Moghulistan gained strength during [[Timur]] (1395–1405), a warlord from [[Barlas]] clan. Timur defeated [[Tokhtamysh]] Khan of Golden Horde in 1395 and deprived him of Fore-Caucasus. He destroyed the army of the [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[sultan]] near [[Ankara|Angora]], the event which delayed a Turkish conquest of the [[Byzantine Empire]] for half a century. The [[Timurid Empire]] fragmented shortly after he died.

Timur's grandson [[Ulugh Beg]] (1409–1449) ruled [[Transoxania]] and during his rule trade and economy of Transoxania achieved significant development. Ulugh Beg built an [[astronomy|astronomical]] [[observatory]] near [[Samarkand]] in 1429 and wrote his work [[Zij-i-Sultani]], which comprises the theories of astronomy and a catalogue of over 1000 stars with their precise positions on the [[celestial sphere]].

A long rivalry of Moghulistan with the [[Oirats]] for trade routes ended with its defeat by the Oirats in 1530. [[Babur]], a [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] ruler of [[Kabul]], conquered most of India in 1526 and founded the [[Mughal Empire]]. The Mughal Empire fractured into several lesser states in the 18th century and was conquered by the [[British Empire]] in 1858.

==== Ilkhanate ====
{{Main|Ilkhanate}}
[[File:Soltaaniyeh-Dome-01.jpg|thumb|[[Dome of Soltaniyeh]]]]
The [[Ilkhanate]], ruled by the House of Hulagu, formed in 1256 and comprised [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Transcaucasus]], eastern [[Asia Minor]] and Western [[Turkistan]]. While the early rulers of the khanate increasingly adopted [[Tibetan Buddhism]], the Mongol rulers converted to [[Islam]] after the enthronement of Ilkhan [[Ghazan]] (1295–1304). In 1300, [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]] in cooperation with Mongol historians commenced writing ''[[Jami al-Tawarikh]]'' (Sudur un Chigulgan, Compendium of Chronicles) under Ghazan's order. The work was completed in 1311 during the reign of Ilkhan [[Öljeitü]] (1304–1316). ''[[Altan Debter]]'' written by a Mongol historian [[Bolad]] Chinsan served as a basis for writing ''Jami al-Tawarikh''. After the death of [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan|Abu Sa'id]] (1316–1335) the Ilkhanate disintegrated rapidly into several states. The most prominent one was the [[Jalayrids|Jalayrid]] dynasty, ruled by descendants of Mukhali of [[Jalair]].

==See also==
* [[Mongol Empire]]
* [[Toluid Civil War]]
* [[Berke–Hulagu war]]
* [[Kaidu–Kublai war]]
* [[Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war]]
* [[Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia]]
*[[Turco-Mongol]]s
*[[Turanism]]
*[[Tartary]]
*[[Inner Asia]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Mongol Empire}}
{{Yuan dynasty topics}}

[[Category:Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:Yuan dynasty]]
[[Category:Golden Horde]]
[[Category:Chagatai Khanate]]
[[Category:Ilkhanate]]
[[Category:Partition (politics)]]
[[Category:Dissolutions of empires]]

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